Substance Use

FAS data includes information about respondents’ attitudes and behaviors related to alcohol, drug and tobacco use in adolescents and young adults.  Despite the vast number of risk factors that adolescents face, we have found several promotive factors that help youth overcome the negative effects of risks for alcohol and drug use (AOD). We have also studied AOD as a risk factor that leads to other problem behaviors.

Here are some key findings:

    • Cigarette use is a major gateway to both alcohol use and drug use
    • Factors that predict tobacco use in youth include disadvantaged neighborhoods, depressive symptoms, and employment
    • Risk factors that predict alcohol use are: violent behaviors, decreasing religious activity, lack of peer and parental support and negative school experiences and motivation
    • Neighborhood characteristics and involvement in prosocial activities are protective factors associated with risks for AOD use
    • Youth may use alcohol as a way to cope with depressive symptoms
    • Parental support, positive racial identity and religious activity are protective factors for alcohol use
    • Drug use is associated with lack of school motivation and achievement

An image of the Substance Abuse findings infographic

Related publications

2018

Cordova, D., Heinze, J., Hsieh, H.-F., Mistry, R., Salas-Wright, C. P., Cook, S. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Are trajectories of psychosocial risk in adolescence linked to HIV vulnerability in emerging and young adulthood? an eighteen-year longitudinal study. AIDS (London, England), 32(4), 495–503. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000001717
Goldstick, J. E., Heinze, J., Ngo, Q., Hsieh, H.-F., Walton, M. A., Cunningham, R. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Perceived Peer Behavior and Parental Support as Correlates of Marijuana Use: The Role of Age and Gender. Substance Use & Misuse, 53(3), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1342660
Lee, D. B., Heinze, J. E., Neblett, E. W., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Trajectories of Racial Discrimination That Predict Problematic Alcohol Use Among African American Emerging Adults. Emerging Adulthood, 6(5), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696817739022

2017

Eisman, A. B., Stoddard, S. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2017). Trajectories of Organized Activity Participation Among Urban Adolescents: Associations with Young Adult Outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology, 45(4), 513–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21863
Hsieh, H.-F., Heinze, J. E., Lang, I., Mistry, R., Buu, A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2017). Violence Victimization, Social Support, and Papanicolaou Smear Outcomes: A Longitudinal Study from Adolescence to Young Adulthood. Journal of Women’s Health (2002). https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2016.5799

2016

Eisman, A. B., Stoddard, S. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2016). Trajectories of Organized Activity Participation Among Urban Adolescents: An Analysis of Predisposing Factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0267-3
Pisarska, A., Eisman, A., Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2016). Alcohol and Cigarette Use Among Warsaw Adolescents: Factors Associated With Risk and Resilience. Substance Use & Misuse, 51(10), 1283–1296. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2016.1168442

2015

Buu, A., Dabrowska, A., Heinze, J. E., Hsieh, H.-F., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Gender differences in the developmental trajectories of multiple substance use and the effect of nicotine and marijuana use on heavy drinking in a high-risk sample. Addictive Behaviors, 50, 6–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.06.015
Hsieh, H.-F., Heinze, J. E., Aiyer, S. M., Stoddard, S. A., Wang, J.-L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Cross-domain influences on youth risky driving behaviors: A developmental cascade analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 38, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2015.03.002
Mistry, R., Heinze, J. E., Cordova, D., Hsieh, H. F., Goldstick, J. E., Aiyer, S. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Transitions in Current Substance Use from Adolescence to Early-Adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(10), 1871–1883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0309-x

2014

Cordova, D., Heinze, J., Mistry, R., Hsieh, H.-F., Stoddard, S., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Family functioning and parent support trajectories and substance use and misuse among minority urban adolescents: a latent class growth analysis. Substance Use & Misuse, 49(14), 1908–1919. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.935792
Dziak, J. J., Li, R., Zimmerman, M. A., & Buu, A. (2014). Time-varying effect models for ordinal responses with applications in substance abuse research. Statistics in Medicine, 33(29), 5126–5137. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.6303
Hurd, N. M., Varner, F. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Does perceived racial discrimination predict changes in psychological distress and substance use over time? An examination among Black emerging adults. Dev Psychol, 50(7), 1910–1918. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036438
Hurd, N. M., Stoddard, S. A., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Natural mentors, mental health, and substance use: Exploring pathways via coping and purpose. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(2), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099361

2013

Brenner, A. B., Zimmerman, M. A., Bauermeister, J. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2013). Neighborhood context and perceptions of stress over time: An ecological model of neighborhood stressors and intrapersonal and interpersonal resources. Am J Community Psychol, 51(3–4), 544–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9571-9

2012

Pingel, E. S., Bauermeister, J. A., Elkington, K. S., Fergus, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2012). Condom Use Trajectories in Adolescence and the Transition to Adulthood: The Role of Mother and Father Support. J Res Adolesc, 22(2), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00775.x

2011

Brenner, A. B., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2011). Neighborhood variation in adolescent alcohol use: examination of socioecological and social disorganization theories. J Stud Alcohol Drugs, 72(4), 651–659.

2010

Bauermeister, J. A., Zimmerman, M. A., Caldwell, C. H., Xue, Y., & Gee, G. C. (2010). What predicts sex partners’ age differences among African American youth? A longitudinal study from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Sex Research, 47(4), 330–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903015850
Elkington, K. S., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2010). Do parents and peers matter? A prospective socio-ecological examination of substance use and sexual risk among African American youth. J Adolesc, 34(5), 1035–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.004
Elkington, K. S., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2010). Psychological distress, substance use, and HIV/STI risk behaviors among youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(5), 514–527. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-77951094269&partnerID=40&md5=d9cd5e18cd58824f7291fba8fd17cfe5
Hurd, N., & Zimmerman, M. (2010). Natural mentors, mental health, and risk behaviors: A longitudinal analysis of African American adolescents transitioning into adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 46(1–2), 36–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9325-x

2009

Hurd, N. M., Zimmerman, M. A., & Xue, Y. (2009). Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models: A study with urban adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(6), 777–789.
Xue, Y., Zimmerman, M. A., & Cunningham, R. (2009). Relationship between alcohol use and violent behavior among urban African American youths from adolescence to emerging adulthood: a longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health, 99(11), 2041–2048.

2008

Repetto, P. B., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2008). A Longitudinal Study of Depressive Symptoms and Marijuana Use in a Sample of Inner-City African Americans. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(3), 421–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00566.x

2007

Xue, Y., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2007). Neighborhood residence and urban youth’s cigarette smoking: The protective role of prosocial activities. American Journal of Public Health, 97(10), 1865–1872.

2006

Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2006). The effects of cumulative risks and promotive factors on Urban adolescent alcohol and other drug use: A longitudinal study of resiliency. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 237–249. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2006-23612-011&site=ehost-live

2005

Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent Resilience: A Framework for Understanding Healthy Development in the Face of Risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399–419.
Fergus, S., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2005). Psychosocial Correlates of Smoking Trajectories Among Urban African American Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(4), 423–452.
Repetto, P. B., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between Depressive Symptoms and Cigarette Use Among African American Adolescents. Health Psychology, 24(2), 209–219. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2005-02260-010&site=ehost-live

2004

Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., Bernat, D. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial identity, parental support and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1–2), 71–82.
Repetto, P. B., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2004). A longitudinal study of the relationship between depressive symptoms and alcohol use in a sample of inner-city black youth. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65(2), 169–178.

2003

Bryant, A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Role Models and Psychosocial Outcomes Among African American Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(1), 36–67.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Schmeelk-Cone, K. H. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of adolescent substance use and school motivation among African American youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(2), 185–210. http://www.blackwellpublishing.com; http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&an=2003-03829-003

2002

Bryant, A. L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2002). Examining the effects of academic beliefs and behaviors on changes in substance use among urban adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.621
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: a study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 221–243.

2000

Newman, P. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Gender differences in HIV-related sexual risk behavior among urban African American youth: a multivariate approach. AIDS Education & Prevention, 12(4), 308–325.

1998

Doljanac, R. F., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1998). Psychosocial factors and high-risk sexual behavior: race differences among urban adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21(5), 451–467.
Salem, D. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Notaro, P. C. (1998). Effects of Family Structure, Family Process, and Father Involvement on Psychosocial Outcomes Among African American Adolescents. Family Relations, 47(4), 331–341.

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