We have found consistently that positive social relationships are associated with positive youth development and school achievement. Social support and social influences from parents, peers, and adult mentors also help youth avoid substance use and violent behavior. This is what we have learned:
- Parental support matters across the lifespan
- Adult mentors promote positive youth development
- Father’s support helps protect against risks for problem behavior
- Peers can have both positive and negative influences, but parental support can protect against peers’ negative pressures.
Related publications
2018
Assari, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Family Structure and Subsequent Anxiety Symptoms; Minorities’ Diminished Return. Brain Sciences, 8(6), 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8060097
Goldstick, J. E., Heinze, J., Ngo, Q., Hsieh, H.-F., Walton, M. A., Cunningham, R. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Perceived Peer Behavior and Parental Support as Correlates of Marijuana Use: The Role of Age and Gender. Substance Use & Misuse, 53(3), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1342660
Heinze, J. E., Cook, S. H., Wood, E. P., Dumadag, A. C., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2018). Friendship Attachment Style Moderates the Effect of Adolescent Exposure to Violence on Emerging Adult Depression and Anxiety Trajectories. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(1), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0729-x
Schmidt, C. J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Stoddard, S. A. (2018). A Longitudinal Analysis of the Indirect Effect of Violence Exposure on Future Orientation Through Perceived Stress and the Buffering Effect of Family Participation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 62(1–2), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12254
2017
Eisman, A. B., Stoddard, S. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2017). Trajectories of Organized Activity Participation Among Urban Adolescents: Associations with Young Adult Outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology, 45(4), 513–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21863
Hsieh, H.-F., Heinze, J. E., Lang, I., Mistry, R., Buu, A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2017). Violence Victimization, Social Support, and Papanicolaou Smear Outcomes: A Longitudinal Study from Adolescence to Young Adulthood. Journal of Women’s Health (2002). https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2016.5799
2016
Cook, S. H., Heinze, J. E., Miller, A. L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2016). Transitions in Friendship Attachment During Adolescence are Associated With Developmental Trajectories of Depression Through Adulthood. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 58(3), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.10.252
Córdova, D., Heinze, J. E., Mistry, R., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2016). Ecodevelopmental Trajectories of Family Functioning: Links With HIV/STI Risk Behaviors and STI Among Black Adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 52(7), 1115–1127. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000136
2015
Assari, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Low parental support in late adolescence predicts obesity in young adulthood; Gender differences in a 12-year cohort of African Americans. Journal of Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders, 14, 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40200-015-0176-8
Assari, S., Smith, J. R., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Gender Differences in Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Fear, Parental Support, and Depression among African American Emerging Adults. Societies, 5(1), 151–170. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010151
Eisman, A. B., Stoddard, S. A., Heinze, J., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Depressive symptoms, social support, and violence exposure among urban youth: A longitudinal study of resilience. Developmental Psychology, 51(9), 1307–1316. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039501
Hsieh, H.-F., Heinze, J. E., Aiyer, S. M., Stoddard, S. A., Wang, J.-L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2015). Cross-domain influences on youth risky driving behaviors: A developmental cascade analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 38, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2015.03.002
2014
Choe, D. E., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Transactional Process of African American adolescents’ family conflict and violent behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 24(4), 591–597. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12056
Choe, D. E., Stoddard, S. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Developmental trajectories of African American adolescents’ family conflict: differences in mental health problems in young adulthood. Dev Psychol, 50(4), 1226–1232. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035199
Cordova, D., Heinze, J., Mistry, R., Hsieh, H.-F., Stoddard, S., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Family functioning and parent support trajectories and substance use and misuse among minority urban adolescents: a latent class growth analysis. Substance Use & Misuse, 49(14), 1908–1919. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.935792
Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). An analysis of natural mentoring relationship profiles and associations with mentees’ mental health: considering links via support from important others. Am J Community Psychol, 53(1–2), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9598-y
Hurd, N. M., Stoddard, S. A., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014). Natural mentors, mental health, and substance use: Exploring pathways via coping and purpose. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(2), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099361
2013
Brenner, A. B., Zimmerman, M. A., Bauermeister, J. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2013). Neighborhood context and perceptions of stress over time: An ecological model of neighborhood stressors and intrapersonal and interpersonal resources. Am J Community Psychol, 51(3–4), 544–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9571-9
Hurd, N. M., Stoddard, S. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2013). Neighborhoods, social support, and African American adolescents’ mental health outcomes: a multilevel path analysis. Child Dev, 84(3), 858–874. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12018
2012
Choe, D. E., Zimmerman, M. A., & Devnarain, B. (2012). Youth violence in South Africa: exposure, attitudes, and resilience in Zulu adolescents. Violence Vict, 27(2), 166–181.
Hurd, N. M., Sanchez, B., Zimmerman, M. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2012). Natural mentors, racial identity, and educational attainment among African American adolescents: exploring pathways to success. Child Dev, 83(4), 1196–1212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01769.x
Pingel, E. S., Bauermeister, J. A., Elkington, K. S., Fergus, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2012). Condom Use Trajectories in Adolescence and the Transition to Adulthood: The Role of Mother and Father Support. J Res Adolesc, 22(2), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00775.x
Stoddard, S. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Bauermeister, J. A. (2012). A Longitudinal Analysis of Cumulative Risks, Cumulative Promotive Factors, and Adolescent Violent Behavior. J Res Adolesc, 22(3), 542–555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00786.x
2011
Barnett, T. E., Rowley, S., Zimmerman, M. A., Vansadia, P., & Caldwell, C. (2011). A longitudinal study of household change on African American adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(3), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20434
Brenner, A. B., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2011). Neighborhood variation in adolescent alcohol use: examination of socioecological and social disorganization theories. J Stud Alcohol Drugs, 72(4), 651–659.
Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2011). Natural Mentoring Relationships among Adolescent Mothers: A Study of Resilience. J Res Adolesc, 20(3), 789–809. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00660.x
Hurd, N., Zimmerman, M. A., & Reischl, T. M. (2011). Role Model Behavior and Youth Violence: A Study of Positive and Negative Effects. Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(2), 323–354. http://jea.sagepub.com/content/31/2/323
2010
Elkington, K. S., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2010). Do parents and peers matter? A prospective socio-ecological examination of substance use and sexual risk among African American youth. J Adolesc, 34(5), 1035–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.004
Hurd, N., & Zimmerman, M. (2010). Natural mentors, mental health, and risk behaviors: A longitudinal analysis of African American adolescents transitioning into adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 46(1–2), 36–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9325-x
2009
Hurd, N. M., Zimmerman, M. A., & Xue, Y. (2009). Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models: A study with urban adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(6), 777–789.
2006
Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2006). The effects of cumulative risks and promotive factors on Urban adolescent alcohol and other drug use: A longitudinal study of resiliency. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 237–249. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2006-23612-011&site=ehost-live
2005
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Behrendt, D. E. (2005). Natural Mentoring Relationships. In D. L. DuBois, M. J. Karcher, D. L. (Ed) DuBois, & M. J. (Ed) Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of Youth Mentoring (2005-09468-010; pp. 143–157). Sage Publications Ltd.
2004
Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., Bernat, D. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial identity, parental support and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1–2), 71–82.
2003
Bryant, A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Role Models and Psychosocial Outcomes Among African American Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(1), 36–67.
Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). A Longitudinal Analysis of Stress in African American Youth: Predictors and Outcomes of Stress Trajectories. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(6), 419–430. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025934301468
2002
Bryant, A. L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2002). Examining the effects of academic beliefs and behaviors on changes in substance use among urban adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.621
Caldwell, C. H., Zimmerman, M. A., Bernat, D. H., Sellers, R. M., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Racial identity, maternal support, and psychological distress among African American adolescents. Child Development, 73(4), 1322–1336.
Ramirez-Valles, J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Juarez, L. (2002). Gender Differences of Neighborhood and Social Control Processes A Study of the Timing of First Intercourse among Low-achieving, Urban, African American Youth. Youth & Society, 33(3), 418–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X02033003004
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: a study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 221–243.
2001
Zimmerman, M. A., Tuttle, L., Kieffer, E. C., Parker, E. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Maton, K. I. (2001). Psychosocial outcomes of urban African American adolescents born to teenage mothers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 779–805.
1998
Doljanac, R. F., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1998). Psychosocial factors and high-risk sexual behavior: race differences among urban adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21(5), 451–467.
Ramirez-Valles, J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Newcomb, M. D. (1998). Sexual risk behavior among youth: modeling the influence of prosocial activities and socioeconomic factors. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 39(3), 237–253.
Salem, D. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Notaro, P. C. (1998). Effects of Family Structure, Family Process, and Father Involvement on Psychosocial Outcomes Among African American Adolescents. Family Relations, 47(4), 331–341.